Easy Guidelines for Writing Essays For Independence Day

<h1>Easy Guidelines for Writing Essays For Independence Day</h1><p>While Independence Day falls in summer, the ideal exposition themes for Independence Day fall smack in the center of the school year. That is on the grounds that autonomy, as it identifies with the occasion, is a type of energy and national having a place. You don't need to pick a themed paper. There are heaps of acceptable ones that you can utilize instead.</p><p></p><p>In expansion to the way that they are so natural to compose and update on, articles for Independence Day can likewise be extraordinary warm-up works out, before tests and different tests in the fall and winter. Due to its national intrigue, it is much simpler to compose an exposition on Independence Day than some other national occasion. It may not be the best exposition theme for a paper without anyone else, however it tends to be utilized as a springboard for extra work.</p><p></p><p> There are additionally various extraordinary article subjects for Independence Day that likewise tie into the soul of this occasion. For instance, the paper subjects for Independence Day can incorporate points, for example, 'The Fall of Slavery in America,' 'The American Dream'Rebirth of the Workplace.' If you feel that you are under-arranged to do the exposition, you might need to design the theme around a specific issue that is all the more intently attached to the remainder of your coursework. That way, you can abstain from composing an incoherent paper that nobody will read.</p><p></p><p>There are a lot of spots to discover exposition themes for Independence Day on English Literature. For instance, there are various school libraries that have assets for fledglings. You can likewise look at your nearby school library or the library of your neighborhood secondary school with the expectation of complimentary reference books on Independence Day.</p>< p></p><p>Of course, you can generally utilize a College Board or College-level AP Exam on American History to capitalize on your assets. Utilize the areas on either sides of the test for an incredible model. Note that some school courses may likewise incorporate unique examination controls that can be utilized related to the AP Exam.</p><p></p><p>If you are an individual from the AP, College Board, or school level, there are additionally numerous approaches to ensure that your paper points for Independence Day are composed appropriately. One strategy that I prescribe is to get a duplicate of the composing test segment from the school course's book. You can either utilize it as a kind of perspective or you can utilize it as a guide for your own essay.</p><p></p><p>Another way that you can plan for the paper is to ensure that you figure out how to utilize a decent scholarly composing program that will permit you to take ad vantage of the time that you spend composing. Ensure that you adhere to the standards and rules of the composing program that you have selected.</p><p></p><p>Essays for Independence Day are extremely simple to compose, yet you can be certain that they will be long and dry. On the off chance that you need to have the option to push ahead rapidly and convey an elegantly composed article that the whole class will acknowledge, be certain that you plan for it previously. Keep in mind, there are a lot of chances to get ready for essays.</p>

Picking a Topic For an Argumentative Essay

Picking a Topic For an Argumentative EssayPicking a point for a factious exposition isn't a simple errand. It is on the grounds that when composing a proposal, you need to think of something that can have an effect on the peruser. The sort of exposition that you will compose will rely upon the theme and your crowd, yet so as to guarantee that your articles are cleaned and engaging, it is significant that you realize how to pick the privilege topic.When you are taking a gander at subjects, you need to ensure that they are appropriate for your crowd. For instance, on the off chance that you are expounding on a social issue, you should ensure that the themes that you pick are identified with the topic of conversation. On the off chance that you don't know about the point that your crowd is making, it will be difficult for you to think of a paper that can work for the readers.It is additionally significant that you realize what your crowd needs to peruse. Since you are composing a theory or a thesis, you will expound on the subjects that you have found out about previously. In the event that you are composing a book, at that point you should consider the themes that the perusers need to find out about so as to ensure that you don't disillusion your readers.You ought to likewise observe what your crowd discovers hard to comprehend. In the event that you are composing a postulation, at that point you have to realize that there will be numerous subtleties that your crowd will discover hard to comprehend. On the off chance that you are composing a book, at that point you should remember a great deal of models for request to cause your perusers to comprehend what you are attempting to say.To decide the subject of your article, you can utilize the examination that you have done previously. In the event that you need to discover the things that your crowd doesn't care for, at that point you can take a gander at the slip-ups that you have made just as the things that they do like. By knowing this data, you will have the option to concentrate on the subjects that you need to compose about.Then, you need to recognize what precisely the things that your crowd might want to discuss. On the off chance that you are composing a book, at that point you should comprehend what the perusers need to find out about with the goal that you won't make it sound like a talk. Recall that a contentious paper needs to convince your crowd and intrigue them about what you are saying.When it comes to picking a subject for a pugnacious article, it is significant that you consider all the things that you have to consider. In the event that you don't do this, you will be left pondering where you are going to begin. Continuously search for manners by which you can incorporate your data about the things that your crowd might want to peruse about.A influential article will consistently catch the eye of the peruser and keep it. Realizing how to pick a point for a pugnacious paper is a significant ability that you have to ace. When you realize how to do this, you will have the option to show your crowd how you have picked up something from your exploration.

Help With Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Essay

Help With Writing a Rhetorical Analysis EssayWhen it comes to understanding the importance of an entry, you have to know the distinction between expository investigation and a reference paper. The presentation or 'Talk' in an artistic setting is to offer data about the piece.Writing a logical examination is writing to clarify or remark on a bit of writing, book, or article. This type of composing would not be very as significant in training, yet is an incredible apparatus to assist you with seeing how a content was constructed.Reading chronicled composing and research is probably the most ideal approaches to increase a comprehension of how messages were composed. You can decide to compose a reference paper, or a fundamental exposition. So as to help you with the paper, these expositions will require a comprehension of the historical backdrop of the article, both the style and the structure of the essay.The expression 'Talk' was not gotten from the historical backdrop of writing, howe ver from its history in news coverage. The historical backdrop of reporting is likewise an incredible method to increase a comprehension of how a bit of content was made. A decent definition for the term is that explanatory investigation is the utilization of media, for example, word references, reference books, and artistic works, to concentrate how the words, sentences, and expressions were used.Before you start any article, regardless of whether it is a reference exposition, a paper, or an exposition, you should ensure that you have comprehended the ideas. As it were, it is like clarifying the sentence structure by utilizing models. By understanding the structure, you will have the option to clarify the idea, the distinctive word decisions, and the structure and rhyme of the passage.If you are curious about the article, don't stress. A reference paper would basically be a word reference or reference book, rather than examining the scholarly work or writer, which is known as a log ical analysis.By understanding the contrasts between these two types of composing, you will have the option to support yourself and your school papers. This will assist you with perusing the entry all the more obviously and comprehend the importance of the section. The purpose of any article is to convey what was introduced, and to give the peruser data that causes them better comprehend the work.

Proposal Argument Essay Examples Features

<h1>Proposal Argument Essay Examples Features </h1> <h2> Finding the Best Proposal Argument Essay Examples </h2> <p>Different points of view on the hugeness of religion, including the way that it helps individuals and the way that it hurts them (the moral discussion) The subject of religion is touchy and very few people are set up to talk about it transparently. Contingent upon the representation of making economies, ask into the association among globalization and democratization The proposition exposition themes on globalization licenses you to dig into probably the most confused wonders which occur in this day and age. Examine their consequences for confidence 78. Look at the ongoing hypotheses about tension and the impact of this issue on the development of people 82. </p> <p>The proposition contention is among irrefutably the most inconvenient papers to compose. You need to deliberately inquire about this theme and comprehend it altogeth er (and from a few perspectives) to have the option to make an effective proposition contention inside this article. The key contentions being made in your proposition likewise should be emphasized. Next, think about how to set the proposition set up. </p> <p>As soon as you're set up to build up a theory, investigate these Argumentative Thesis Statement Examples. Educational program proposition subjects is a way to attempt. Wilhorira858 postulation site. </p> <h2> The One Thing to Do for Proposal Argument Essay Examples</h2> <p>This locale of the task expects you to incorporate a few passages regarding why this theme is interesting and significant. Presently simply anticipate the finished task to land in your very own mail inbox and you may download it with no issue. On the off chance that you pick a point that isn't important to you, it will appear in your paper. In the event that you are battling with choosing exposition points or composing it, here is the perfect solution.</p> <p>Go over the potential results of WWII had the rival side won For some people, expounding on history might be an exhausting activity, however the proposed article points consolidate convincing topics for investigation, particularly as for guessing about the doable bearings that verifiable occasions may have taken. Explain how you are going to address your point, distinguish sub-contentions you should demonstrate to make your enormous contention valid. You'll need to back up your perspective with very much looked into realities and information as well. </p> <h2> Most Noticeable Proposal Argument Essay Examples </h2> <p>From improving business execution to creating powerful publicizing methodologies, it is conceivable to effectively make a proposition paper that may be down to earth for your up and coming profession. You should build a proposition which you are prepared to demonstrate utilizing the devices you have accessible, without expecting to counse l the world's preeminent master on the issue to gracefully you with a complete judgment. Research paper at moderate costs. With all the segments of your proposition paper set up, have a crush and come spirit to your paper in several days to modify. </p> <p>Make utilization of what you found out about composing a compelling contention to turn your point stick. Proposition page three is something which should be restricted on the grounds that it's an obsolete nature of the paper which glaringly conflicts with the substance of the paper as expressed by its distributers. At long last, your point is to convince the peruser your proposition isn't simply suitable, however one worth seeking after. When expounding on the issue, it is to persuade perusers that a difficult exists and that perusers need to think about the issue. </p> <h2>Proposal Argument Essay Examples Options </h2> <p>Knowing your stuff for the most part implies that individuals are to some degree bound to trust you and will be progressively disposed to execute your proposition. At the point when you're picking your subject, remember that it's a lot less complex to expound on something which you at present have intrigue ineven in the event that you don't have the foggiest idea about a decent arrangement about it. You ought to build up a thought and offer some proof. It is critical to make reference to that the thought shouldn't be a decent one. </p> <p>In expansion, a proposition contention ought to examine the strategy by which the arrangement might be executed. Expect your proposition will cover the mind boggling issues and issues that may build up your proposed arrangement. Outside of an instructive setting, proposition papers are generally just composed as a method of comprehending an issue, or demonstrating one potential way to deal with fix an issue. An answer article presents an issue, depicts what the essayist believes is the perfect answer for the issue, and afterward bolsters her or his determination of arrangement. </p> <p>A postulation is the result of an all-encompassing reasoning strategy and cautious consultation after primer research. On the off chance that you experience any difficulties with composing an exploration proposition, we're here to help you! The exploration proposition you're going to peruse is developed so as to illuminate the examination venture I will execute. You'll additionally need to discover progressively about the proof to back up your proposition. </p> <p>PaperCoach will have the option to assist you with every one of your papers, so investigate the occasion! By method of model, in school, you may be mentioned to make a paper from the contradicting perspective. The principal thing which you must do when you're going to start taking a shot at your paper is to review a proposition. Your exploration paper must be proposal driven. </p>

Accounting Software Bridge Gap For Small Businesses

Accounting Software Bridge Gap for Small Businesses Small Businesses face more challenges than large corporations, it is often difficult for small businesses to remain competitive in a constant changing economy. Many small businesses lack the capital, know how, and budgetary allocation that helps small businesses build and expand. Therefore, small businesses depend on accounting software to narrow the gap between large corporation and small businesses by reducing cost, boost efficiency, reduce manual errors, and assist small businesses in staying ahead of their competitors. Accounting software gives small businesses an advantage in a competitive market by improving small business ability to manage financial statements quicker and easier.†¦show more content†¦Small businesses are the fabric of our economy and technology has aid in the development, growth, and prosperity of small businesses. Technology has improved the way small businesses prepare financial statements, record sales, and recognize asset impairment at a click of a button. Technology is so far integrated into our society that it is impossible for a small business to function without using technology. Thus, accounting software allow small businesses to operate efficiently without losing sales and reduce the time it would typically take to prepare financial statements. Small businesses can run more smoothly using accounting software that matches the need of the company. Accounting application is an essential tool for small businesses and is an indispensable asset for the going concern of small businesses. Therefore, accounting software enhance the capabilities of small businesses to function efficiently, increase productivity and competitiveness despite the size of the business. Various accounting software such as QuickBooks, Freshbooks, Xero, and Zoho Books are great for small businesses and include payment processing, payroll capabilities, general ledger management, and invoicing. QuickBooks application are great for small businesses freela ncers, and consultants and as a user-friendly interface. QuickBooks user’s basically complete forms and the software preform theShow MoreRelatedThe Convergence of Two Accounting Systems and the International Financial Reporting Standards1318 Words   |  5 PagesI. Introduction The convergence of two accounting systems, the US GAAP and International Financial Reporting Standards, is not a new concept. For many years, the primordial idea of convergence started in the late 1950’s in response to post World War II economic integration and related increases in cross-border capital flows. Initially, the term used was â€Å"Harmonization until the early 1990’s the politically correct term is â€Å"Convergence†. It has been in deliberation to whether all countriesRead MoreA Research Study On Designing A Holistic Education Program At The University Of Washington1121 Words   |  5 Pagesbrilliance of a powerful design lies in it being a transparent medium that allows flawless, intuitive and delightful interactions between people and machines. I envision myself as a UX designer, firmly rooted by HCI principles, who is able to act as a bridge between the technologists building a product and the people using this technology. I am positive that the MHCI+D program at the University of Washington will guide me towards the next level and help me reach my goal. My undergraduate studies at theRead MoreSecuring It Infrastructure At Wd Enterprises1268 Words   |  6 PagesSeattle area. Three of these locations house manufacturing based businesses which operate large CNC machines to develop engine components for various racing industries. These locations also have a few high end computers used for CAD software and other design tools. Each location also has an Active Directory server to provide user management and provide file and printing services on the network, along with a server to run the accounting software for each division. The remaining two locations house the majorityRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed Our Life1511 Words   |  7 Pagesera, how difficult is it for the older generation to cope up with the digital living. Or how the young generation has adapted to the tech digital life completely in areas such as Business Management. This paper solely concentrates on the generational gap, older generation viewed as digital tourist and younger generation adapting the digital life, various aspects including business management. Use of Technology Firstly, we need to understand how technology is important in the digital era as of todayRead MoreApplication Erp For Enterprise Resource Planning Essay1754 Words   |  8 Pagespointed out by small local ERP solution providers with their own version of ERP. Now capturing the unclaimed market is the new war. Even organizations like Microsoft and SAP are also offering their new version of ERP software for SME’s (Small Medium Enterprise). Keywords-ERP, Enterprise Resource Planning, ERP for SME’s, Local ERP, ERP vendors I. INTRODUCTION ERP-Enterprise Resource Planning is a concept of managing and utilizing business resources in a profitable way. Payroll, accounting solutionsRead MoreApplication For Small And Medium Sized Business Organizations2783 Words   |  12 PagesTable of Contents 1.0 Introduction on Cloud Computing 2 2.0 Adoption for Small and Medium Sized Business Organizations 3 3.0 Service Models 4 3.1 IaaS 4 3.2 PaaS 4 3.3 Saas 4 4.0 Accounting Information Systems 5 5.0 QuickBooks Online 6 6.0 Features Benefits 8 6.1 Availability 8 6.2 Cost Reduction 8 6.3 Data Backups 8 6.4 Scalability 9 7.0 Drawbacks, Risks Limitations 10 7.1 Insecurity Control 10 7.2 Service Performance 10 7.3 Accessibility 10 7.4 Data Lock-In and Transferability 11 8.0 OrganizationalRead MoreAccounting Attachment Report5336 Words   |  22 Pages1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 The objectives of the Industrial attachment The purpose of industrial attachment is to bridge the gap between the theory and the practise of coursework learnt in the University of Botswana. It is meant to give students a clearer perspective of concepts learnt in the academic environment and in turn prepare them for the work environment upon completion of the degree programme. Internship is also aimed at give students a chance to apply the material learnt into a practical environmentRead MoreThe Relevance of Information Technology in Managing Small and Medium Scale Enterprises2709 Words   |  11 PagesA PROPOSAL ON THE RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MANAGING SMALL AND MEDIUM SCALE ENTERPRISES IN NIGERIA. BY: AMULUDUN OLUWABUSAYO R. 090201049 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Globalization of the economy has led to the emergence of information technology, especially the growth of the Internet and other communication network. Growing diversity of business transactions and increased competition, companies are changing the way they communicate withRead MoreHow Climate Change Is The Key For Improvement2171 Words   |  9 Pagesexactly how is climate change related to consumption? This type of information is only one of the things a climate change broker can help with. The Rockies Institute (TRI) is one of these brokers. Their mission is to grow the capacity of individuals, businesses and communities to build resilience and adapt to climate change. In fact, there is already a large network of climate change brokers who have decided to work together by sharing climate data. This network additionally creates opportunities for otherRead MoreSupply Chain Management And How They Affect The Success Of An Organization2340 Words   |  10 Pagesorganization. In the report, different Supply Chain Management technologies will be analyzed from development to implementation and how they can make a difference within an organization. Introduction Supply chain management is ever evolving. With new software and technology created and enhanced on an ongoing basis, organizations are strongly benefiting by producing leaner supply chains, higher profitability margins, and maintaining a completive advantage. A successful supply chain management strategy

Media and Technology Statement Essay Topics

<h1>Media and Technology Statement Essay Topics</h1><p>Media and innovation explanation paper can be a charming and enlightening course. The composed articulation ought to be straightforward, brief and ought to give a basic synopsis of the essayist's emotions about different issues identified with the computerized unrest. There are numerous viewpoints to a media and innovation explanation and via cautiously thinking about the entirety of the issues and figuring out what is imperative to you, you can accomplish your objective of making an important statement.</p><p></p><p>What issues would you like to address and why? For what reason is the world evolving? How are individuals reacting to these changes? What would you be able to do as an individual or business to support this change? Would you like to make a general proclamation or simply center around one area?</p><p></p><p>As you experience your announcement, ensure yo u talk about your own needs and wants. What are the issues that are essential to you? What would you like to achieve and why?</p><p></p><p>In expansion to searching out subjects that are applicable to your own conditions, there are various point territories that may intrigue you however may not show up on a composed correspondence on purpose. For instance, on the off chance that you have an innovation related side interest, for example, composing games, it might be beneficial to make reference to this while talking about the difficulties you face in your line of work.</p><p></p><p>Any time you compose something for open consideration, you have to consider how you will get it. Would you like to say something for yourself or for society on the loose? Make a careful decision with respect to whether you need to pick up regard from others or whether you need to irritate them.</p><p></p><p>Making an announcement can a ssist you with characterizing yourself as an individual or give you an expert standing that reflects what your identity is. In the event that you are pursuing open position, ensure you contemplate this. Regardless of whether it is for government or for the educational committee, your announcement will permit individuals to know your thoughts and make up their own personalities about you.</p><p></p><p>Once you've concocted some composing subjects, the subsequent stage is to design out the paper themes. In spite of the fact that there are no immovable standards concerning what is suitable to be remembered for a media and innovation proclamation paper, you should attempt to incorporate themes, for example, the following:</p><p></p><p>No matter how this composing is introduced, you ought to consistently remember that these are things that are being looked by individuals every day and the occasions that encompass these mechanical changes an d the choices that should be made about how we will live later on. What are your musings on these issues?</p>

Use Argumentative Essay Map Samples to Improve Your Essays

<h1>Use Argumentative Essay Map Samples to Improve Your Essays</h1><p>You should utilize Argumentative Essay Map or Extemporaneous Essay Map to chip away at certain contentions. These are very not quite the same as your ordinary exposition. A large portion of the articles you compose depend on thoughts and data you have accumulated from books, magazines and other sources.</p><p></p><p>These expositions are generally not for long yet for the most part for extraordinary lengths. On the off chance that you compose expositions that are pugnacious in nature, these paper maps will support you. You can download the articles and study them online.</p><p></p><p>These papers don't utilize any exploration material. They depend totally on the thoughts and the information that you definitely know. You can generally include more information on the off chance that you know about it.</p><p></p><p>You can likewi se utilize this exposition as an investigation guide and you can utilize it for your future paper. You can even fuse it into your report or paper. So you can truly utilize this exposition to make your article better.</p><p></p><p>You can work on composing papers utilizing the papers that you have downloaded. These papers can give you thoughts and bearings on the best way to make a pugnacious article. There are additionally test articles that you can discover online.</p><p></p><p>Use these expositions as a rule and how to make a contentious paper. They are not quite the same as your normal article. An Argumentative Essay Map is essentially an agenda or a rundown of things you should inquire about before composing your essay.</p><p></p><p>This agenda will control you when you are composing a magnificent article. You can add more data to your article on the off chance that you find out about it.</p><p>& lt;/p><p>An Argumentative Essay Map is an extraordinary method to figure out how to compose a pugnacious exposition. The articles are useful and will direct you.</p>

The Fight Against College Admission Essay about the Universe

<h1>The Fight Against College Admission Essay about the Universe </h1> <p>The believability of the composing is what makes it powerful. In the occasion the paper you requested could remain to be more great, we gracefully totally free amendments. You don't should be worried about the should reconsider and address the paper you make it from us. The full application is basic, however with respect to setting singular understudies other than the serious numbers, the expositions convey a lot of weight in acknowledgment thought. </p> <h2> The Advantages of College Admission Essay about the Universe</h2> <p>Perhaps right presently you're attempting to enter the school that you long for. Presently things began to get extremely fascinating. There are loads of ways you'll have the option to achieve this. I understood that I had the option to affect others. </p> <p>There are two reasons why universities demand that you form an exposition as a segment of your. While there is most likely no Ucas framework since there is in the assembled realm, you'll by and by be approached to make a school confirmations exposition as a segment of your application. School application exposition composing takes a ton of thought and a lot of imagination. Composing an astounding school affirmation article requires a great deal of imagination. </p> <p>As soon as you are in control of a decent opening passage, consider exactly how it is conceivable to utilize your notes to develop a few additional sections that will frame most of your article. The main time the five section exposition might be useful in school is the point at which you're. This segment has two instances of prevalent school expositions. At the point when you've perused the guidelines various events and assembled your notes, you can start making a diagram to sort out your paper and settle on a choice concerning what message you have to send. </p> <p>In people, for instance, the reference section is accepted to be a minimal structure. Remember, you need them to pay attention, and in this way you have to attract them right away. Six hours consistently for two days before each test demonstrated enough for me to become familiar with a full course load. Furthermore, recollect different necessities like the arrangement of the record and its length. < ;/p> <p>With this much data in regards to school application articles promptly accessible on the web, it is difficult to separate good exhortation from awful. The second kind of sentence animates the creative mind and makes a connection to the creator. The quick picture creates an association for the peruser and they wish to understand more. Something which is offered, introduced, or given as a present. </p> <p>The thoughts should be succinct. Here's an article that clarifies the different methods of citing. People romantic tales, she clarified, and normally see how to tell them. </p> <h2>Top College Admission Essay about the Universe Secrets </h2> <p>You can choose the sort of paper you need and it will be composed without any preparation. On the off chance that string hypothesis is in reality evident, at that point the full world is made out of strings, and I can't tie a solitary one. There's lacking space for an out and out presentation, subsequently it's far superior simply make a plunge. Pick something and stick with it. </p> <p>Applying for summer doesn't support an understudy's likelihood of being acknowledged. Mulling over the ferocious rivalry at world class schools, composing a perfect school paper may keep on keeping your application from the shredder. The confirmations site expressed BYU is attempting to discover understudies that are practiced in a huge number of regions not simply scholastics. Attempt to recall there are a great many others understudies applying to your favored college, and you need to separate yourself. </p>

Writing About Your Reaction Sample Essay

Writing About Your Reaction Sample EssayIf you are looking for ways to write about your reaction sample essay, then you will have many options available to you. However, before you choose any of them, you must know the purpose of writing this type of essay. In short, your essay is a way to express your opinion on a topic or situation. This essay helps to communicate what you think is true about the situation.There are two parts to your essay: first is the body of the essay itself, and second is the introduction. The body is the main part of your essay and contains your primary thoughts about the topic. This article will outline three options you have when it comes to writing about your reaction sample essay.The first option is to simply write a long essay that is full of descriptive language and inflection. There is nothing wrong with this option, but it doesn't do much for your essay. The problem with this option is that it can make it very difficult to read. You may find yourself p ausing and re-reading your essay in a process called word bogging. If this happens, you will be decreasing the chances of your essay being read and also decreasing the chances of your essay being used in a position where it is required to be read.Secondly, you can write a short essay, with some descriptive content, but without some of the fancy adjectives and colorful vocabulary. This option is perfect for people who do not have a lot of time to devote to their essay. Many times, this type of essay is needed because someone has already written a longer version of the same article, but they didn't spend enough time to really get into it. The short version will allow you to get into your thoughts without spending as much time as the longer version.Thirdly, you can try out writing about your reaction sample essay using apen and paper. Your paper will act as your pointer, while you write about your essay. Since you will be writing on a note pad or paper, be sure to try to focus on your thoughts rather than your mood. This way, you can get more creative in your writing. You can write about your reactions to the situations using nothing but your thoughts, and this can actually help you to come up with a great writing style.Another great way to write about your reactions sample essay is by reading other people's articles, magazines, and newspapers. Many times, when someone is writing an article, they may write something that is completely inaccurate. If you have read this before, you can use the information from the article as your basis in creating a well written reaction sample essay.If you choose to read something before writing about your reaction sample essay, make sure that you still have an idea in your head of what you are going to write about. By reading something before you write, you will help you have a rough draft of what you are going to write about.Now that you have some ideas on how to write about your reaction sample essay, you are ready to put pen t o paper. You will want to focus on conveying your opinion about the situation, as well as how you feel about the situation.

The Chronicles of Ged Likely Essay Topics

<h1>The Chronicles of Ged Likely Essay Topics </h1> <p>Tell us a point you've changed your head on over the most recent three decades. The correct determination of point is crucially significant. As a matter of fact, you may pick any subject which you find intriguing. Expound on a difficult you have or might want to fix. </p> <p>There are some basic guidelines when you're pondering settling regarding the matter. In the first place, you should understand that anyway much eccentric the point might be, practice despite everything bodes well. Examine each question cautiously and set aside a little effort to work out the theme and what kind of answer will be normal. Express your supposition regarding the matter. </p> <h2> The Essentials of Ged Likely Essay Topics You Can Learn From Starting Right Away</h2> <p>All three of the primary HSE tests give test prompts and sections. In the first place, each area is just half insofar as it will be on the genuine GED, which gives you less practice and doesn't allow you to figure out how well you'll hold up during a lengthier test. There are bunches of GED-explicit examination directs that you can purchase to additionally assist you with reading and prepare for the article segment, together with the rest of the test. In contrast to the vario us pieces of the test, picking up scores for composing isn't objective, as the appropriate responses aren't concrete. </p> <p>Part II is a test to set up how well you may utilize worked language to illuminate your thoughts. Official practice tests are created by precisely the same people who make the genuine GED. </p> <p>Practicing in short blasts won't help you as much as being in a situation to rehearse for the all out time in one continuous meeting. At that point take a few minutes to conceptualize what you might want to state about that subject. The initial a few sentences flexibly you with a chance to be inventive as you snatch the test graders' advantage. You'll promptly know your score and can set up in the event that you need more practice on that particular subject. </p> <p>The perfect approach to prepare for the math some portion of the GED is by rehearsing issues, and you may read for social examinations just by remembering the information you're anticipated to know. Practice tests are magnificent in light of the fact that they offer you a feeling of the GED and r eveal to you which zones you despite everything must improve in. The GED asks test-takers to compose on different subject issue. The GED is used to make a secondary school equivalency recognition. </p> <p>There are a great deal of things you can expound on! Actually, as often as possible you can settle on any theme you like and, for example, expound on your future desires and profession goals. You ought to settle on the kind of point that is speaking to you. Pick a particular point that others may not consider, and whatever you select, verify you know a ton about it! </p> <h2>Ged Likely Essay Topics for Dummies </h2> <p>When it has to do with application article prompts the objective isn't to locate a personal story from the candidate it's significantly progressively essential to hand-off how the. You ought to have openness to appropriate assets which will help you to form the article with great sense and structure. The subject can be related with science or writing. Other than customary paper guidelines, an example reaction is provided for survey. </p> <h2>Why Almost Everything You've Learned About Ged Likely Essay Topics Is Wrong </h2> <p>Just composing the exposition layout won't do, you need to be well aware of how to utilize precisely the same to engender your paper. This exposition theme is a heavenly possibility for humor. At that point distinguish which kind of paper you need create. From the diagram, it is conceivable to now start composing your paper. </p> <p>In the end, it can assist with finding an outside viewpoint. Include thoughts for models you have to place in your article. An examination paper is a kind of article that requests the essayist the subject for a contention paper must be begging to be proven wrong and is as often as possible controversial.</p> <p>If you understand that you are adhered concerning composing a paper, demand someone's help that will assist you with continuing through composing an article. The writer utilizes words that are exact and increment the exposition. Make your own exposition subjects, or request that a pal help. When composing this exposition, pick a subject of intrigue. </p> <h2> The Foolproof Ged Likely Essay Topics Strategy</h2> <p>These questions will manage many territories inside the arithmetic control. When in doubt you know conceivable choice of subjects in advance, so I don't comprehend what things to compose circumstance is incredibly impossible. The main issue incorporates language structure issues like hurtful as opposed to hurt in the inquiry toward the beginning. Simply take a speedy while and endeavor to appreciate the inquiries totally so as to respond to them suitably. </p>

Essay Topics For No Exit

<h1>Essay Topics For No Exit</h1><p>If you are the kind of individual who blossoms with the fun and rush of article composing, at that point you may have known about paper subjects for no exit. On the off chance that you figure this may seem like a smart thought, you're off-base. For a certain something, it isn't in any capacity partnered with anywhere.</p><p></p><p>In actuality, the thought came about when an understudy solicited the teacher from his English class if there was whatever else that she could consider. The understudy at that point followed up by saying, 'I can't consider much else that I need to know.'</p><p></p><p>In different words, she needed to know how much space for self-articulation the understudy had in her group. This prompted a time of examination into the different things that were said in various kinds of courses and that prompted the choice of a theme for her task. At long last, she arrived o n one that most felt didn't offer enough space for self-expression.</p><p></p><p>At first, the exposition themes for no exit were not really utilized by any doctoral level college understudies, however they got well known with more significant level individuals. Understudies in their last year of graduate school were the essential ones who might exploit this idea.</p><p></p><p>Grad understudies require imaginative plans to take care of issues that emerge. Since such a large number of them are scholastically testing, they need innovative plans to get to the base of an issue.</p><p></p><p>In short, the possibility of this paper has been useful for the graduate understudies, and it has likewise become the standard that most universities use. A few schools, nonetheless, despite everything give out no leave articles since they feel that the author needs to communicate along these lines so as to do well in the exam.&l t;/p><p></p><p>To sum up, on the off chance that you are keen on takinga no leave exposition, you ought to talk with your educator first to check whether they permit this idea or not. It might be conceivable that they are not permitted to do so in light of the fact that the contention was made in a certain class.</p>

Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Topics - Why You Should Write About Reddit and Twitter

<h1>Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Topics - Why You Should Write About Reddit and Twitter</h1><p>In this article I'm demonstrating how to get ready for a wide scope of themes you can use for your midsummer evenings dream exposition. While the principle focal point of most understudies' late spring months is their senior postulation, it's really conceivable to discover numerous marvelous paper subjects that you can use over the span of a theory protection, exposition assessment, or maybe a last assessment. In this article I'll give you three themes that are ideal for springtime midterms and tests.</p><p></p><p>Reddit and twitter have gotten probably the most sweltering subject on the web. The innovation was first discharged in 2020 and has detonated into the standard. The site permits individuals to offer assessments, share connections, and talk with others all in a solitary interface. Understudies can increase some important knowledge by perusi ng the other people groups' reactions to a given subject.</p><p></p><p>By far, this is an extraordinary road to go in for midsummer evenings dream paper theme. You can discover answers to essentially any inquiry by 'going there' and posing inquiries. Investigate a specific point on one of the top Reddit conversation discussions and see what individuals are stating about it. Far and away superior, you can even place in your own inquiries with the goal that the remarks are really yours. In the event that you have an inquiry you truly need to see replied, at that point you can likewise utilize Twitter to request the assessments of others.</p><p></p><p>Most of the gatherings permit you to post in different client profiles by just making another record and signing in. When you're in you can begin your own string where you can come to the heart of the matter and post an inquiry. Try not to be reluctant to pose inquiries that aren't a piece o f the customary conversation strings either. You can likewise utilize it to assist you with composing your own paper on the off chance that you like.</p><p></p><p>It doesn't make a difference whether you've for a long while been itching to expound regarding this matter, oryou need to explore new territory this year as a late spring venture, these two outlets are an extraordinary method to begin. You can even utilize them as supplemental to the rudiments of a subject you definitely know something about. In any case, before you do, understand that you'll have the option to utilize them as reference for your composition. In case you're new to Reddit or Twitter, give looking through them a shot and looking at the action in between.</p><p></p><p>Or in the event that you need to get familiar with somewhat more about composing on the web, go along with one of the numerous journalists gathering conversations that are accessible. There's a grea t deal of good data and consolation at these discussions that can really assist you with your venture. The last, and possibly most significant activity before you begin is to build up an arrangement of study that will make your composing simpler to digest.</p><p></p><p>In the last investigation, the best midsummer evenings dream article points can be found on the Internet. I trust you discovered this article helpful in discovering incredible subjects for your school venture. Recall that you have each motivation to be amped up for your scholastic undertakings, and that you can discover incredible open doors for your thoughts on the Internet.</p><p></p><p>Use these midsummer evenings dream exposition themes to begin. On the off chance that you don't have the foggiest idea where to start, you can discover extraordinary thoughts on the Web by examining the correct watchwords. Also, recall, investigate is vital to getting extraordinary thou ghts for your essay!</p>

The Fight Against Technology Scholarship Essay Samples

<h1> The Fight Against Technology Scholarship Essay Samples </h1> <p>The composing of a disclaimer can be a troublesome activity for an individual who has never thought of one, subsequently I will gracefully you with a compact guide that you can utilize and follow. Lamentably, my story isn't one of a sort. At this point you must have thought a great deal numerous themes to help you with your exposition composing, however in the event that you get the genuine structure, everything seems to get cleaned away from your brain and all that you can do is to gaze vacantly at it. For example, the creator tends to the way that American history classes don't ordinarily address about the Vietnam War, in spite of the way that it happened only a constrained time prior. </p> <h2>The Fundamentals of Technology Scholarship Essay Samples Revealed </h2> <p>Counselors and educators may likewise have the option to offer understanding into neighborhood grants that might be accessible. Youthful grown-ups that fantasy of a college degree are frequently scared by the expense. In case you're a secondary school senior you're qualified. Schools need molded people associated with an option that could be bigger than themselves. </p> <p>There is an expansive number of grants offered for the customary understudy. Understudies can make an application for the grant each year. They don't need to be the overachiever in class to fit the bill for a grant. Understudies which are scholastically normal may simply push the idea of an advanced degree insane since they can't bear the cost of it. </p> <h2> The New Angle On Technology Scholarship Essay Samples Just Released</h2> <p>Be cautious by they way you structure and consideration for your tattoo. The issue that you could look in the instructive side of style is being in a situation to pay for the additional cost of securing an advanced education. For instance, in the event that you are requesting a grant identified with a medical problem, you would need to get a suggestion from someone who is familiar with your sickness and is aware of your locale administration or charitable effort. There are various grants intended for the future architect s and style advertisers of earth. </p> <p>An exposition layout will permit you to arrange the general structure of your article. It's easy to bring up a paper that has been composed exclusively for its enthusiasm. At long last make sure to deliver your article unique and intriguing. A heavenly paper is one which leaves a durable impression. </p> <p>The absolute initial step to any article composing is to choose a subject of intrigue. Another way to do it is to adopt a completely extraordinary innovative strategy to composing a paper. By the end of the paper, the peruser needs to have a total appreciation of what your identity is and what you might want to achieve. You don't have to have the absolute best composing abilities as an approach to be imaginative and form a powerful article. </p> <p>It is urgent to form the article in a way it stands apart from the remainder of the applications. Try not to utilize just concise sentences, as a result of it should make your paper not as refined and additional normal. Besides, one is a 500-word answer and the other one is a 1,000-word reaction.</p> <h2> The Technology Scholarship Essay Samples Game</h2> <p>Remember that all grant applications are extraordinary, and that implies you may need to structure your exposition to satisfy those specific prerequisites. These applications are found on school sites or different various connections. In the occasion you were unable to find somebody close by, consider utilizing editing administrations of on-line article help suppliers. On the off chance that you have issues with the application, don't be reluctant to call the financing association. </p> <p>Always be sure to view the survey my article area of any composing administration site you're contemplating utilizing. Discovering how to form a disclaimer is something which numerous people need to learn. You should choose an organization that is notable and one with an incredible history of continually giving the perfect article tests and thoughts to their customers. Peruse my article composing administration surveys and my manual for choosing the absolute best assistance for all that you should comprehend about how to pick the best composing organizations. </p> <h2> How to Choose Technology Scholarship Essay Samples </h2> <p>As a result the peruser may even settle on a choice to sue you. Each young lady has a somewhat unique structure and explicit slices and styles are made to compliment different figures. Also, there's size diagram and you can pick the dress as needs be remembering your money related arrangement. The general organization of your e xposition, for instance, text dimension and edges, will exclusively rely on the guidelines gave to you. </p> <p>Review what you've been mentioned to address in your exposition Sometimes instructive organizations wish to discover something other than your profession destinations. A significant key to acknowledgment into school programs depends on commonly amazing scores on in any event one of these tests. Connection instruction to your up and coming vocation Elaborate how your instructive foundation will permit you to achieve your expert destinations. Rather, notice how it can support your vocation. </p>

International Students Should Be Taught At A University

International students who come from different parts of the world to study with later hopes of finding a job, take loans to help pay for education ending up in large debts. This sadly is a harsh reality for students who come as international students into the United States. International students are not permitted to work off campus while studying at a university. According to the U.S. Citizenship Immigration Services, visas granted to foreign students are prohibited to any execution of a job (Working). This can include any work ranging from working in motels and liquor stores to in some cases, on campus. Inability to abide by these rules can result in deportation or can affect the student visa and further permissions for a work visa and a green card. Making it incapable for international students to work off-campus, builds a financial burden on these students as well as their parents back home. Not only are these students burdened with thousands of dollars of debt, the currency exc hange rate makes it tougher for these students to pay for their tuitions, housing, and food, without earning it in American dollars. Some students are fortunate enough to find and do jobs on campus, but only small number of students admitted in United States universities are hired for on-campus and the availability is quite low in comparison to a number of international students. This makes it difficult for international students to get an on-campus job and help pay their tuitions, as well asShow MoreRelatedInternational Students At The American University1749 Words   |  7 PagesHow many of you guys study well in the American Universityï ¼Å¸ Maybe some of you have problem in your academic study? To be a successful International student in the American University, International students should work hard and go to the student center of school and go to the writing center in order to find tutors for help. Also they can take lots of student’s activities in school. For most of International students, taking the activities in school, including language communication or club activitiesRead MoreData Analysis And Evaluation Of Findings1100 Words   |  5 PagesBiacan TUI University â€Æ' Data Analysis and Evaluation of Findings Students at the Trident University MAE504 course are taught to develop principles and techniques to conduct research in education. Understanding the different research methods gives greater appreciation for the importance of research. This paper will take a research question and go through the process of identifying the aspects of research that will help meaningfully answer that question to generalize the results to students and educatorsRead MoreThe Position Of Assistant Professor Of Socio Cultural Foundations Of Education At Miami University997 Words   |  4 Pagesposition of Assistant Professor of Socio-Cultural Foundations of Education at Miami University, which I found at the Chronicle of Higher Education. I am currently a PhD candidate at the University of Wyoming in the College of Education, where I am nearing completion of my dissertation investigating international students’ English language issues, perceived discrimination, and intent to persist at the university . I expect to defend my dissertation in October of 2016. I was intrigued by the postingRead MoreThe Importance Of English Language In Thailand1427 Words   |  6 Pagesthe English as a language is being taught in many countries oversea today including Thailand. In fact, you’ll be surprising to know that English is required for many of the students in many countries. Unfortunately, it is not necessarily taught as well as it could be because of heavy teaching load, class sizes and adequate technology. Learning an English today stills has been challenging for many countries and specifically in Thailand. In Thailand, the student often gets too overwhelmed with EnglishRead MoreBilingual Education : The Dual Language Program1224 Words   |  5 Pageseducation is an educational system in which students are taught in both their native and international language. It has been practiced in various forms in different countries of the world. There are still conflicts between people in case of bilingual education because some people prefer bilingual education whereas, some refuse it, depending upon their own thoughts and reasons and they are still arguing about it. Whatever the argument is, bilingual education should be prioritized, especially in the countryRead MoreEnglish Language Vs. Foreign Countries Essay1186 Words   |  5 Pages[Name of Student] [Name of Lecturer] Education [Date] English Language Education in Japanese Schools Introduction Teaching a second language always has its unique challenges, unlike teaching other subjects, in which instruction is in the learners’ first language. English, being an international language is taught across, most, if not all modern day nations. It is not only important for personal communication and professional growth but also for socialization in a world that is increasingly globalizedRead MoreAdmission Essay1021 Words   |  5 PagesI write to express my interest in the tenure-track appointment in guitar at the assistant or associate professor level beginning fall 2018 at the Arizona State University School of Music. While I have taught at a number of institutions, my position at Georgia State University (GSU) has offered the greatest opportunities for professional growth. Consequently, my discussion of professional activities will focus primarily on the work I have done in connection with GSU starting in 2012. In this timeRead MoreAcademic Integrity And Student Conduct O ffice939 Words   |  4 PagesI am Rohit Attada, bearing a WIN 714332532 pursuing my masters in Industrial Engineering at Western Michigan University. I have been registered to EM 5120 service operation management subject for this spring 2016. I submitted the first assignment given in the class, in which professor found the traces of plagiarism and he forwarded it to the student conduct office. At the student conduct office, I came to know where I have done a mistake and I felt that I am responsible for violation of sectionRead MoreInternational Students Essay example1074 Words   |  5 PagesDifferences between American Students and International Students Most young people believe that studying in a different country is a privilege because they are able to experience other cultures, and learn from them. However, in the United States it is not as good as they thought because International students have much more pressure being in this country, and sometimes they cannot handle it very well. Therefore, in the United States the life of an international student is very unfavorable if peopleRead MoreThe Foxhole Court, By Writer Nora Sakavic Essay1193 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"University, he said quietly. It sounded like a dream; it tasted like damnation†. This quote is stated in the book â€Å"The Foxhole Court† by Writer Nora Sakavic. As we know, university is the first formal step of planning for future destination, analysis all the opportunities, choosing best option, applying strategies for moving forward. Career orientation or career development process may start from here. Leading a healthy, solvent and transparent e conomic life a perfect career should be selected

How To Write A Persuasive Essay

How To Write A Persuasive EssayIf you're looking for the best ways to become more persuasive, you should explore some of the world issues you may be familiar with. Many people are familiar with these world issues and can use these knowledge bases when writing a persuasive essay.It's important to understand that many people have political issues in their life. If you're writing an essay on one of these political issues, it will help to explain some of the history. This will help if you're asked about your knowledge base.In most cases, world issues are connected to the government or other things like that. This is why it's always important to make sure you know the basics before you write your essay. This is true for this type of topic as well.There are two world issues that are usually introduced in any persuasive essay. These are economic and military issues. These two areas are the most common and can be used in any persuasive essay.World issues can be helpful, but it's important to understand how the world issue are connected. The way these world issues are handled affect a person's future. The focus of this essay can affect the future of the writer.The goal of writing a persuasive essay is to make your audience think and discuss political and other types of world issues. It's important to let the essay reflect what you really feel. Your essay can be informative and include other options to make the reader think.As a writer, you should look at the world issues you're familiar with. This will give you some idea on what to say and how to say it. As you make notes, you should be thinking about all the possible factors that will affect the topic. You should analyze these factors so that you can become more persuasive.World issues can often be easy to understand. It can help to be able to take note of world issues as you read and study. Reading and studying your book can help you to get more ideas for your essay. Try to find out about the world issues you might be familiar with and find a way to include them in your essay.

Choosing Good Topics For Argumentative Essay

Choosing Good Topics For Argumentative EssayGood topics for argumentative essay are as varied as the debate topics they call for. And it is as easy to find a list of good topics as it is to discover one that will be easy and efficient for your arguments. You just need to keep in mind that the format of the essay you write will largely determine how effective it will be and whether it will be read by the judges, but you will be surprised at how many things can make or break your argument.The first thing to look at when deciding on good topics for argumentative essay is to consider what you hope to say. Some topics will be easy to write about and therefore, won't require much thought and effort, whereas others are more difficult to write about and will need a lot of effort and consideration. A good example of a more difficult topic would be one about the pros and cons of argumentative essay writing.Of course, you don't have to give up on debate topics that appeal to you, if you simply want to add more depth to your essay. One method to do this is to work out a list of argumentative essay topics you would most like to discuss and list them out on paper. Then, write the essay with those topics in mind. If you were to read through it carefully, you will be able to spot patterns that could make it easier for you to reach a decision about how you will approach the topic of the essay.Another way to narrow down the possible choices of topics for argumentative essay is to think about what you would be expecting the judges to ask you about such topics. For example, is it relevant to be able to list all the research methods and procedures used to draw up the evidence in your essay? If you are not sure about the relevance of the topics you will be addressing, it may be worth finding out about what judges are likely to ask you and then incorporating this information into your essay.If you are considering discussing things that would be quite important to you, such as why som eone should take an argumentative essay class, the best place to start your outline of your essay is to list the reasons for the subjects you are going to be discussing. There is nothing wrong with using the reasons listed as a guide to your essay. After all, there will be lots of questions you will be asked to address in the course of the competition, so being able to think about the reasons you will use for the arguments you will be making is vital. The question is, are you going to ask the judges about these reasons in your own essay or will you find a neutral source to help you.While the topics for argumentative essay should be included in the first draft of your essay, you should only include them if they will help you write the best argument that will stand out from all the other essays that were written. There is no point in including a topic that will be redundant or could detract from the strong points of your essay. So, be sure to cut any topics out of your list of topics before you start writing your essay. Take your time and do not rush.Once you have thought of your topics for argumentative essay, it is time to use some creative ideas to make the topics interesting and engaging for readers. Have a look at some of the themes you could use to make the essay more interesting. Perhaps you could use sports themes, discussion topics, or political topics as well as topics you will consider irrelevant.

Essay Topics for Mba Students Free Essays

this is an Economics Case Study. Assignment Overview: This assignment is based on an article published in The Scandinavian Journal of Economics called ‘Neuroeconomics: Why Economics Needs Brains’, in 2004, Vol. 106, Issue 3, page 555-79. We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Topics for Mba Students or any similar topic only for you Order Now The article is already attached to this assignment question. Please read the article carefully before attempting this exercise. You will also need to draw on other resources available through the library as well as external resources. Please note that you need to provide clear references for your sources when citing research and data. Learning Objectives: This assignment is designed to encourage you to think about the application of concepts learned in this unit in a real world scenario. This assignment, indeed, is challenging as it raises a question to some of the fundamental assumptions behind the existing economic theories, for example, how rational (from your ? rst lecture) an economic agent is ! Economists are asking this question for a while and try to open up the ‘black-box’ by examining the brain mechanism to inform economic theory. 1 As a result the new discipline has emerged called Neuroeconomics. We hope that this assignment will expand the horizon of your thoughts in identifying the limitation of existing economic theories. Assessment: Your score on this assignment contributes towards 30% of your ? nal score for this unit. Although you can work in group, this is not a group assignment and you must submit answers individually. Please check the Academic Honesty and Misconduct section in the Unit Guide. You will be graded on your use of appropriate economic theory and concepts, the clarity of exposition and overall quality of your answers. Questions: Answer all questions. Limit the word count of your assignment to less than 3000. Please use diagrams in your answer when appropriate. 1. What is Neuroeconomics? Provide two examples that standard economics failed to explain but the Neuroeconomics can (examples have to be di? erent from those examples provided in our article). [6 marks] 2. Explain how di? erent lobes of a human brain are interconnected in response to your examples that you suggest for question 1. Which feature(s) of human brain function does work well in these examples? [6 marks] 3. What are the key assumptions of Neuroeconomics? How do they di? er as compared to standard economics? [6 marks] 4. Is it possible to explain Global Financial Crisis (GFC) with the help of Neuroeconomics? Explain. [6 marks] 5. Suppose, you are holding a senior marketing executive position in your company. Is it possible to use the knowledge of Neuroeconomics to promote the sales of your company? Explain. [6 marks] 2 Scand. J. of Economics 106(3), 555–579, 2004 DOI: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9442. 2004. 00378. x Neuroeconomics: Why Economics Needs Brains* Colin F. Camerer California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA camerer@hss. caltech. edu George Loewenstein Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA gl20@andrew. cmu. edu Drazen Prelec MIT, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA dprelec@mit. edu Abstract Neuroeconomics uses knowledge about brain mechanisms to inform economic theory. It opens up the ‘‘black box’’ of the brain, much as organizational economics opened up the theory of the firm. Neuroscientists use many tools—including brain imaging, behavior of patients with brain damage, animal behavior and recording single neuron activity. The key insight for economics is that the brain is composed of multiple systems which interact. Controlled systems (‘‘executive function’’) interrupt automatic ones. Brain evidence complicates standard assumptions about basic preference, to include homeostasis and other kinds of state-dependence, and shows emotional activation in ambiguous choice and strategic interaction. Keywords: Behavioral economics; neuroscience; neuroeconomics; brain imaging JEL classification: C91; D81 I. Introduction In a strict sense, all economic activity must involve the human brain. Yet, economics has achieved much success with a program that sidestepped the * We thank participants at the Russell Sage Foundation-sponsored conference on Neurobehavioral Economics (May 1997) at Carnegie-Mellon, the Princeton workshop on Neural Economics (December 2000) and the Arizona conference (March 2001). This research was supported by NSF grant SBR-9601236 and by the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences, where the authors visited during 1997–1998. David Laibson’s presentation at the Princeton conference was particularly helpful, as were comments and suggestions from referees, John Dickhaut, Paul Zak, a paper by Jen Shang, and conversations with John Allman, Greg Berns, Jonathan Cohen, Angus Deaton, Dave Grether, Brian Knutson, David Laibson, Danica Mijovic-Prelec, Read Montague, Charlie Plott, Matthew Rabin, Peter Shizgal and Steve Quartz. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. 56 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec biological and cognitive sciences that focus on the brain, in favor of the maximization style of classical physics, with agents choosing consumption bundles having the highest utility subject to a budget constraint, and allocations determined by equilibrium constraints. Later tools extended the model to include utility tradeoffs with uncertainty and time, Baye sian processing of information, and rationality of expectations about the economy and about the actions of other players in a game. Of course these economic tools have proved useful. But it is important to remember that before the emergence of revealed preference, many economists had doubts about the rationality of choice. In 1925, Viner (pp. 373–374), lamented that ‘‘Human behavior, in general, and presumably, therefore, also in the market place, is not under the constant and detailed guidance of careful and accurate hedonic calculations, but is the product of an unstable and unrational complex of reflex actions, impulses, instincts, habits, customs, fashions and hysteria. ’ At the same time, economists feared that this ‘‘unstable and unrational complex’’ of influences could not be measured directly. Jevons (1871) wrote, ‘‘I hesitate to say that men will ever have the means of measuring directly the feelings of the human heart. It is from the quantitative effects of the feelings that we must estimate their comparative amounts. ’’ The p ractice of assuming that unobserved utilities are revealed by observed choices— revealed preference—arose as a last resort, from skepticism about the ability to ‘‘measure directly’’ feelings and thoughts. But Jevons was wrong. Feelings and thoughts can be measured directly now, because of recent breakthroughs in neuroscience. If neural mechanisms do not always produce rational choice and judgment, the brain evidence has the potential to suggest better theory. The theory of the firm provides an optimistic analogy. Traditional models treated the firm as a black box which produces output based on inputs of capital and labor and a production function. This simplification is useful but modern views open the black box and study the contracting practices inside the firm—viz. , how capitalowners hire and control labor. Likewise, neuroeconomics could model the details of what goes on inside the consumer mind just as organizational economics models what goes on inside firms. This paper presents some of the basic ideas and methods in neuroscience, and speculates about areas of economics where brain research is likely to affect predictions; see also Zak (2004), and Camerer, Loewenstein and Prelec (2004) for more details. We postpone most discussion of why economists should care about neuroscience to the conclusion. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 557 II. Neuroscience Methods Many different methods are used in neuroscience. Since each method has strengths and weaknesses, research findings are usually embraced only after they are corroborated by more than one method. Like filling in a crossword puzzle, clues from one method help fill in what is learned from other methods. Much neural evidence comes from studies of the brains of non-human animals (typically rats and primates). The ‘‘animal model’’ is useful because the human brain is basically a mammalian brain covered by a folded cortex which is responsible for higher functions like language and long-term planning. Animal brains can also be deliberately damaged and stimulated, and their tissues studied. Many human physiological reactions can be easily measured and used to make inferences about neural functioning. For example, pupil dilation is correlated with mental effort; see Kahneman and Peavler (1969). Blood pressure, skin conductance (sweating) and heart rate are correlated with anxiety, sexual arousal, mental concentration and other motivational states; see Levenson (1988). Emotional states can be reliably measured by coding facial expressions and recording movements of facial muscles (positive emotions flex cheekbones and negative emotions lead to eyebrow furrowing); see Ekman (1992). Brain imaging: Brain imaging is the great leap forward in neuroscientific measurement. Most brain imaging involves a comparison of people performing different tasks—an ‘‘experimental’’ task E and a ‘‘control’’ task C. The difference between images taken during E and C shows what part of the brain is differentially activated by E. The oldest imaging method, electro-encephalogram (or EEG) measures electrical activity on the outside of the brain using scale electrodes. EEG records timing of activity very precisely ($1 millisecond) but spatial resolution is poor and it does not directly record interior brain activity. Positron emission topography (PET) is a newer technique, which measures blood flow in the brain using positron emissions after a weakly radioactive blood injection. PET gives better spatial resolution than EEG, but poorer temporal resolution and is limited to short tasks (because the radioactivity decays rapidly). However, PET usually requires averaging over fewer trials than fMRI. The newest method is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI measures changes in blood oxygenation, which indicates brain activity because the brain effectively ‘‘overshoots’’ in providing oxygenated blood to active parts of the brain. Oxygenated blood has different magnetic properties from deoxygenated blood, which creates the signal picked up by fMRI. Unfortunately, the signal is weak, so drawing inferences requires repeated # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 558 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec sampling and many trials. Spatial resolution in fMRI is better than PET ($3 millimeter3 ‘‘voxels’’). But technology is improving rapidly. Single-neuron measurement: Even fMRI only measures activity of ‘‘circuits’’ consisting of thousands of neurons. In single neuron measurement, tiny electrodes are inserted into the brain, each measuring a single neuron’s firing. Because the electrodes damage neurons, this method is only used on animals and special human populations (when neurosurgeons use implanted electrodes to locate the source of epileptic convulsions). Because of the focus on animals, single neuron measurement has so far shed far more light on basic emotional and motivational processes than on higher-level processes such as language and consciousness. Psychopathology: Chronic mental illnesses (e. g. , schizophrenia), developmental disorders (e. g. , autism), and degenerative diseases of the nervous system (e. g. , Parkinson’s Disease (PD)) help us understand how the brain works. Most forms of illness have been associated with specific brain areas. In some cases, the progression of illness has a localized path in the brain. For example, PD initially affects the basal ganglia, spreading only later to the cortex. The early symptoms of PD therefore provide clues about the specific role of basal ganglia in brain functioning; see Lieberman (2000). Brain damage in humans: Localized brain damage, produced by accidents and strokes, and patients who underwent radical neurosurgical procedures, are an especially rich source of insights; see e. g. Damasio (1994). If patients with known damage to area X perform a particular task more poorly than ‘‘normal’’ patients, the difference is a clue that area X is necessary to do that task. Often a single patient with a one-of-a-kind lesion changes the entire view in the field (much as a single crash day in the stock markets— October 19, 1987—changed academic views of financial market operations). For example, patient ‘‘S. M. ’’ has bilateral amygdala damage. She can recognize all facial expressions except fear; and she does not perceive faces as untrustworthy the way others do. This is powerful evidence that the human amygdala is crucial for judging who is afraid and who to distrust. ‘‘Virtual lesions’’ can also be created by ‘transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)’’, which creates temporary local disruption to brain regions using magnetic fields. III. Stylized Facts about the Brain We now review some basic facts about the brain, emphasizing those of special interest to economists. Figure 1 shows a ‘‘sagittal’’ slice of the human brain, with some areas that are mentioned below indicated. It has four lobes—from front to back (left to right, clockwise in Figure 1), frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal. The frontal lobe is thought to be the locus # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains ANTERIOR CINGULATE 559 PREFRONTAL CORTEX NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS PUTAMEN AMYGDALA HIPPOCAMPUS CAUDATE Fig. 1. Human brain (frontal pole left) regions of potential interest to economists of planning, cognitive control and integration of cross-brain input. Parietal areas govern motor action. The occipital lobe is where visual processing occurs. The temporal lobes are important for memory, recognition and emotion. Neurons from different areas are interconnected, which enables the brain to respond to complex stimuli in an integrated way. When an automated insurance broker calls and says, ‘‘Don’t you want earthquake insurance? Press 1 for more information’’ the occipital lobe ‘‘pictures’’ your house collapsing; the temporal lobe feels a negative emotion; and the frontal lobe receives the emotional signal and weighs it against the likely cost of insurance. If the frontal lobe ‘‘decides’’ you should find out more, the parietal lobe directs your finger to press 1 on your phone. A crucial fact is that the human brain is basically a mammalian brain with a larger cortex. This means human behavior will generally be a compromise between highly evolved animal emotions and instincts, and more recently evolved human deliberation and foresight; see e. g. Loewenstein (1996). It also means we can learn a lot about humans from studying primates (who share more than 98% of our genes) and other animals. Three features of human brain function are notable: automaticity, modularity and sense-making. According to a prominent neuroscientist, Gazzaniga (1988) wrote: # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 560 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec ‘Human brain architecture is organized in terms of functional modules capable of working both cooperatively and independently. These modules can carry out their functions in parallel and outside of conscious experience. The modules can effect internal and external behaviors, and do this at regular intervals. Monitoring all this is a left-brain-based system called the interpreter. The interpre ter considers all the outputs of the functional modules as soon as they are made and immediately constructs a hypothesis as to why particular actions occurred. In fact the interpreter need not be privy to why a particular module responded. Nonetheless, it will take the behavior at face value and fit the event into the large ongoing mental schema (belief system) that it has already constructed. ’’ Many brain activities are automatic parallel, rapid processes which typically occur without awareness. Automaticity implies that ‘‘people’’— i. e. , the deliberative cortex and the language processing which articulates a person’s reasons for their own behavior—may genuinely not know the cause of their own behavior. 1 Automaticity means that overcoming some habits is only possible with cognitive effort, which is scarce. But the power of the brain to automatize also explains why tasks which are so challenging to brain and body resources that they seem impossibly difficult at first—windsurfing, driving a car, paying attention to four screens at once in a trading room—can be done automatically after enough practice. 2 At the same time, when good performance becomes automatic (in the form of ‘‘procedural knowledge’’) it is typically hard to articulate, which means human capital of this sort is difficult to reproduce by teaching others. The different brain modules are often neuroanatomically separated (like organs of the body). Some kinds of modularity are really remarkable: The ‘‘facial fusiform area’’ (FFA) is specialized for facial recognition; ‘‘somatosensory cortex’’ has areas corresponding directly to different parts of the body (body parts with more nerve endings, like the mouth, have more corresponding brain tissue); features of visual images are neurally encoded in different brain areas, reproducing the external visual 1 For example, 40-millisecond flashes of angry or happy faces, followed immediately by a neutral ‘‘mask’’ face, activate the amygdala even though people are completely unaware of whether they saw a happy or angry face; see Whalen, Rauch, Etcoff, McInerney, Lee and Jenike (1998). 2 Lo and Repin (2002) recorded psychophysiological measures (like skin conductance and heart rate) with actual foreign exchange traders during their work. They found that more experienced traders showed lower emotional responses to market events that set the hearts of less experienced traders pounding. Their discovery suggests that responding to market events becomes partially automated, which produces less biological reaction in experienced traders. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 561 rganization of the elements internally (‘‘retinotopic mapping’’); and there are separate language areas, Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas,3 for semantics and for comprehension and grammar. Many neuroscientists think there is a specialized ‘‘mentalizing’’ (or ‘‘theory of mind’’) module, which controls a person’s inferences about what other people believe, or feel, or might do; see e. g. Fletcher, Happe, Frith, Baker, Dolan, Frackowiak and Frith (1995). Such a module presumably supports a whole range of critical human functions—decoding emotions, understanding of social rules, emotions, language, strategic concepts (bluffing)—and has obvious importance for economic transactions. Modularity is important for neuroeconomics because it invites tests that map theoretical distinctions onto separate brain areas. For example, if people play games against other people differently than they make decisions (a ‘‘game against nature’’), as is presumed in economic theory, those two tasks should activate some different brain areas. However, the modularity hypothesis should not be taken too far. Most complex behaviors of interest to economics require collaboration among more specialized modules and functions. So the brain is like a large company—branch offices specialize in different functions, but also communicate to one another, and communicate more feverishly when an important decision is being made. Attention in neuroeconomics is therefore focused not just on specific regions, but also on finding ‘‘circuits’’ or collaborative systems of specialized regions which create choice and judgment. The brain’s powerful drive toward sense-making leads us to strive to interpret our own behavior. The human brain is like a monkey brain with a cortical ‘‘press secretary’’ who is glib at concocting explanations for behavior, and privileges deliberative explanations over cruder ones; cf. Nisbett and Wilson (1977) and Wegner and Wheatley (1999). An important feature of this sense-making is that it is highly dependent on expectations; in psychological terms, it is ‘‘top down’’ as opposed to ‘‘bottom-up’’. For example, when people are given incomplete pictures, their brains often automatically fill in the missing elements so that there is never any awareness that anything is missing. In other settings, the brain’s imposition of order can make it detect patterns where there are none; see Gilovich (1991). When subjects listen to music and watch flashing Christmas tree lights at the same time, they mistakenly report that the two are synchronized. Mistaken beliefs in sports streaks, as evidenced by Gilovich, Vallone and Tversky (1985), and seeing spurious patterns in time series like stock-price data (‘‘technical analysis’’) may come from ‘‘too much’’ sense-making. Patients with Wernicke damage can babble sentences of words which make no sense strung together. Broca patients’ sentences make sense but they often ‘‘can’t find just the right word’’. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 3 562 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec Top-down encoding also implies the brain misses images it does not expect to see. A dramatic example is ‘‘change-blindness’’. In an amusing study titled ‘‘Gorillas in our Midst’’, subjects watch a video of six people passing a basketball and count the passes made by one ‘‘team’’ (indicated by jersey color). Forty seconds into the film clip, a gorilla walks into the center of the game, turns to the camera, thumps its chest, and then walks off. Although the gorilla cavorts onscreen for a full total of nine seconds, about one-half of the subjects remain oblivious to the intrusion, even when pointedly asked whether they had seen ‘‘the gorilla walking across the screen’’; see Simons and Chabris (1999). When the brain does assimilate information, it does so rapidly and efficiently, ‘‘overwriting’’ what was previously believed. This can create a powerful ‘‘hindsight bias’’ in which events seem, after the fact, to have been predictable even when they were not. Hindsight bias is probably important in agency relations when an agent takes an informed action and a principal ‘‘second-guesses’’ the agent if the action turns out badly. This adds a special source of risk to the agent’s income and may lead to other behaviors like herding, diffusion of responsibility, inefficiencies from ‘‘covering your ass’â₠¬â„¢, excessive labor turnover, and so on. We emphasize these properties of the brain, which are rapid and often implicit (subconscious), because they depart the most from conscious deliberation that may take place in complex economic decisions like saving for retirement and computing asset values. Our emphasis does not deny the importance of deliberation. The presence of other mechanisms just means that the right models should include many components and how they interact. IV. Topics in Neuroeconomics Preferences Thinking about the brain suggests several shortcomings with the standard economic concept of preference. 1. Feelings of pleasure and pain originate in homeostatic mechanisms that detect departures from a ‘‘set-point’’ or ideal level, and attempt to restore equilibrium. In some cases, these attempts do not require additional voluntary actions, e. g. when monitors for body temperature trigger sweating to cool you off and shivering to warm you up. In other cases, the homeostatic processes oper ate by changing momentary preferences, a process called ‘‘alliesthesia’’; see Cabanac (1979). When the core body temperature falls below the 98. 6F set-point, almost anything that raises body temperature (such as placing one’s hand in warm water) feels good, and the opposite is true when body temperature is too high. Similarly, monitors for blood sugar levels, intestinal distention and many other variables trigger hunger. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 563 Homeostasis means preferences are ‘‘state-dependent’’ in a special way: the states are internal to the body and both affect preferences and act as information signals which provoke equilibration. Some kinds of homeostatic state-dependence are ‘‘contagious’’ across people—for example, the menstrual cycles of females living together tend to converge over time. Perhaps ‘‘waves’’ of panic and euphoria in markets work in a similar way, correlating responses so that internal states become macroeconomic states (as in the ‘‘animal spirits’’, which, in Keynes’s view, were a cause of business cycles). 2. Inferring preferences from a choice does not tell us everything we need to know. Consider the hypothetical case of two people, Al and Naucia, who both refuse to buy peanuts at a reasonable price; cf. Romer (2000). The refusal to buy reveals a common disutility for peanuts. But Al turned down the peanuts because he is allergic: consuming peanuts causes a prickly rash, shortens his breath, and could even be fatal. Naucia turned down the peanuts because she ate a huge bag of peanuts at a circus years ago, and subsequently got nauseous from eating too much candy at the same time. Since then, her gustatory system associates peanuts with illness and she refuses them at reasonable prices. While Al and Naucia both revealed an identical disutility, a neurally detailed account tells us more. Al has an inelastic demand for peanuts—you can’t pay him enough to eat them! while Naucia would try a fistful for the right price. Their tastes will also change over time differently: Al’s allergy will not be cured by repeated consumption, while Naucia’s distaste might be easily changed if she tried peanuts once and didn’t get sick. Another example suggests how concepts of preferen ce can be even wider of the mark by neglecting the nature of biological state-dependence: Nobody chooses to fall asleep at the wheel while driving. Of course, an imaginative rational-choice economist—or a satirist—could posit a tradeoff between ‘‘sleep utility’’ and ‘‘risk of plowing into a tree utility’’ and infer that a dead sleeper must have had higher u(sleep) than u(plowing into a tree). But this ‘‘explanation’’ is just tautology. It is more useful to think of the ‘‘choice’’ as resulting from the interaction of multiple systems—an automatic biological system which homeostatically shuts down the body when it is tired, and a controlled cognitive system which fights off sleep when closing your eyes can be fatal, and sometimes loses the fight. For economists, it is natural to model these phenomena by assuming that momentary preferences depend on biological states. This raises a deep question of whether the cortex is aware about the nature of the processes and allocates cognitive effort (probably cingulate activity) to control them. For example, Loewenstein, O’Donoghue and Rabin (in press) suggest that people neglect mean-reversion in biological states, which explains stylized # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 564 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec facts like suicide resulting from temporary depression, and shoppers buying more food when they are hungry. 4 3. A third problem with preferences is that there are different types of utilities which do not always coincide. Kahneman (1994) distinguishes four types: remembered utility, anticipated utility, choice utility and experienced utility. Remembered utility is what people recall liking; anticipated utility is what they expect to like; choice utility is what they reveal by choosing (classical revealed preference); and experienced utility is what they actually like when they consume. It is likely that the four types of utility are produced, to some extent, in separate brain regions. For example, Berridge and Robinson (1998) have found distinct brain regions for ‘‘wanting’’ and ‘‘liking’’, which correspond roughly to choice utility and experienced utility. The fact that these areas are dissociated allows a wedge between those two kinds of utility. Similarly, a wedge between remembered and experienced utility can be created by features of human memory which are adaptive for general purposes (but maladaptive for remembering precisely how something felt), such as repression of memories for severe pain in childbirth and other traumatic ordeals (e. g. , outdoor adventures led by author GL). If the different types of utility are produced by different regions, they will not always match up. Examples are easy to find. Infants reveal a choice utility by putting dirt in their mouths, but they don’t rationally anticipate liking it. Addicts often report drug craving (wanting) which leads to consumption (choosing) that they say is not particularly pleasurable (experiencing). Compulsive shoppers buy goods (revealing choice utility) which they never use (no experienced utility). When decisions are rare, like getting pregnant, deciding whether to go to college, signing up for pension contributions, buying a house, or declaring war, there is no reason to think the four types of utility will necessarily match up. This possibility is important because it means that the standard analysis of welfare, which assumes that choices anticipate experiences, is incomplete. In repeated situations with clear feedback, human learning may bring the four types of utilities together gradually. The rational choice model of consistent and coherent preferences can then be characterized as a limiting case of a neural model with multiple utility types, under certain learning conditions. 4. A fourth problem with preference is that people are assumed to value money for what it can purchase—that is, the utility of income is indirect, and Biological state-dependence also affects tipping. Most economic models suggest that the key variable affecting tipping behavior is how often a person returns to a restaurant. While this variable does influence tips slightly, a much stronger variable is how many alcoholic drinks the tipper had; see Conlin, Lynn and O’Donoghue (2003). # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 4 Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 565 should be derived from direct utilities for goods that will be purchased with money. But roughly speaking, it appears that similar brain circuitry— dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain—is active for a wide variety of rewarding experiences—drugs, food, attractive faces, humor—and money rewards. This means money may be directly rewarding, and its loss painful. This might explain why workaholics and the very wealthy keep working long hours after they ‘‘should be’’ retired or cutting back (i. e. , when the marginal utility of goods purchased with their marginal income is very low). Similarly, the immediate ‘‘pain of paying’’ can make wealthy individuals reluctant to spend when they should, and predicts unconventional effects of pricing—e. g. a preference for fixed payment plans rather than marginal-use pricing; see Prelec and Loewenstein (1998). 5. A common principle in economic modeling is that the utility of income depends only on the value of the goods and services it can buy, and is independent of the source of income. But Loewenstein and Issacharoff (1994) found that selling prices for earned goods were larger when the allocated good was earned than when it was unearned. Zink, Pagnoni, Martin-Skurski, Chappelow and Berns (2004) also found that when subjects earned money (by responding correctly to a stimulus), rather than just receiving equivalent rewards with no effort, there was greater activity in a midbrain reward region called the striatum. Earned money is literally more rewarding, in the brain, than unearned money. The fact that brain utility depends on the source of income is potentially important for welfare and tax policies. 6. Addiction is an important topic for economics because it seems to resist rational explanation. Becker and Murphy (1988) suggest that addiction and other changes in taste can be modeled by allowing current utility to depend on a stock of previous consumption. They add the assumption that consumers understand the habit formation, which implies that behavior responds to expected future prices. 5 While variants of this model are a useful workhorse, other approaches are possible. It is relevant to rational models of addiction that every substance to which humans may become biologically addicted is also potentially addictive for rats. Addictive substances appear therefore to be ‘‘hijacking’’ primitive reward circuitry in the ‘‘old’’ part of the human brain. Although this fact does not disprove the rational model (since 5 Evidence in favor of the rational-addiction view is that measured price elasticities for addictive goods like cigarettes are similar to those of other goods (roughly A0. 5 and A2), and there is some evidence that current consumption does respond to expected future prices; cf. Gruber and Koszegi (2001) and Hung (2001). However, data limitations make it difficult to rule out alternative explanations (e. g. , smokers may be substituting into higher-nicotine cigarettes when prices go up). # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 566 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec ecently-evolved cortex may override rat-brain circuitry), it does show that rational intertemporal planning is not necessary to create the addictive phenomena of tolerance, craving and withdrawal. It also highlights the need for economic models of the primitive reward circuitry, which would apply equally to man and rat. Another awkw ard fact for rational-addiction models is that most addicts quit and relapse regularly. And while rational addicts should buy drugs in large quantities at discounted prices, and self-ration them out of inventory, addicts usually buy in small packages; cf. Wertenbroch (1998). These facts suggest a struggle between a visceral desire or drugs and cortical awareness that drug use is a losing proposition in the long run; relapse occurs when the visceral desire wins the struggle. It is also remarkable that repeated drug use conditions the user to expect drug administration after certain cues appear (e. g. , shooting up in a certain neighborhood or only smoking in the car). Laibson (2001) created a pioneering formal model of cue-dependent use, showing that there are multiple equilibria in which cues either trigger use or are ignored. The more elaborate model of Bernheim and Rangel (in press), is a paradigmatic example of how economic theory can be deeply rooted in neuroscientific details. They assume that when a person is in a hot state they use drugs; in a cold state, whether they use is a rational choice. A variable S, from 0 to N, summarizes the person’s history of drug use. When he uses, S goes up; when he abstains S goes down. They characterize destructively addictive drugs and prove that the value function is declining in the drug-use history variable S. By assuming the cold state reflects the person’s true welfare, they can also do welfare analysis and compare the efficiency effects of policies like laissezfaire, drug bans, sin taxes and regulated dispensation. Decision-making under Risk and Uncertainty Perhaps the most rapid progress in neuroeconomics will be made in the study of risky decision-making. We focus on three topics: risk judgments, risky choice and probability. Risk and ambiguity: In most economic analyses risk is equated with variation of outcomes. But for most people, risk has more dimensions (particularly emotional ones). Studies have long shown that potential outcomes which are catastrophic and difficult to control are perceived as more risky (controlling for statistical likelihood); see Peters and Slovic (2000). Business executives say risk is the chance of loss, especially a large loss, often approximated by semivariance (the variance of the loss portion of an outcome distribution); see Luce and Weber (1986), MacCrimmon and Wehrung (1986) and recent interest in ‘‘value-at-risk’’ measures in finance. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 567 Fig. 2. Opening the brain at the Sylvian fissure (between temporal and frontal lobes) shows the insula cortex (frontal pole is on the right). Illustration courtesy of Ralph Adolphs These properties are exemplified by the fear of flying (which is statistically much safer than driving) phobias and public outcry to dangers which are horrifying, but rare (like kidnappings of children and terrorist bombings). Since economic transactions are inherently interpersonal, emotions which are activated by social risks, like shame and fear of public speaking could also influence economic activity in interesting ways. A lot is known about the neural processes underlying affective responses to risks; see Loewenstein, Hsee, Welch and Weber (2001). Much aversion to risks is driven by immediate fear responses, which are largely traceable to a small area of the brain called the amygdala; cf. LeDoux (1996). The amygdala is an ‘‘internal ‘hypochondriac’ ’’ which provides ‘‘quick and dirty’’ emotional signals in response to potential fears. But the amygdala also receives cortical inputs which can moderate or override its responses. 6 An interesting experiment illustrating cortical override begins with fearconditioning—repeatedly administering a tone cue followed by a painful electric shock. Once the tone becomes associated in the animal’s mind with the shock, the animal shows signs of fear after the tone is played, but before 6 For example, people exhibit fear reactions to films of torture, but are less afraid when they are told the people portrayed are actors and asked to judge some unemotional properties of the films. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 568 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec ` the shock arrives (the tone is called a ‘‘conditioned stimulus’’ a la Pavlov’s famous salivating dogs). When the tone is played repeatedly but not followed by a shock, the animal’s fear response is gradually ‘‘extinguished’’. At this point, a Bayesian might conclude that the animal has simply ‘‘unlearned’’ the connection between the tone and the shock (the posterior probability P(shockjtone) has fallen). But the neural reality is more nuanced than that. If the shock is then readministered following the tone, after a long period of extinction, the animal immediately relearns the tone–shock relation and feels fear very rapidly. 7 Furthermore, if the connections between the cortex and the amygdala are severed, the animal’s original fear response to the tone immediately reappears. This means the fear response to the tone has not disappeared in the amygdala, it is simply being suppressed by the cortex. Another dimension of risky choice is ‘‘ambiguity’’—missing information about probabilities people would like to know but don’t (e. g. , the Ellsberg paradox). Using fMRI, Hsu and Camerer (2004) found that the insula cortex was differentially activated when people chose certain money amounts rather than ambiguous gambles. The insula (shown in Figure 2) is a region that processes information from the nervous system about bodily states—such as physical pain, hunger, the pain of social exclusion, disgusting odors and choking. This tentative evidence suggests a neural basis for pessimism or ‘‘fear of the unknown’’ influencing choices. Risky choice: Like risk judgments, choices among risky gambles involve an interplay of cognitive and affective processes. A well-known study reported in Bechara, Damasio, Tranel and Damasio (1997) illustrates such collaboration. Patients suffering prefrontal damage (which, as discussed above, produces a disconnect between cognitive and affective systems) and normal subjects chose cards from one of four decks. Two decks had more cards with extreme wins and losses (and negative expected value); two decks had less extreme outcomes but positive expected value (EV), and subjects had to learn these deck compositions by trial-and-error. They compared behavior of normal subjects with patients who had damage to prefrontal cortex (PFC; which limits the ability to receive emotional ‘‘somatic markers’’ and creates indecision). Both groups exhibited similar skin conductance reactions (an indication of fear) immediately after large-loss cards were encountered. 7 This is hard to reconcile with a standard Bayesian analysis because the ame ‘‘likelihood evidence’’ (i. e. , frequency of shock following a tone) which takes many trials to condition fear in the first part of the experiment raises the posterior rapidly in just one or two trials in the later part of the experiment. If the animal had a low prior belief that tones might be followed by shocks, this could explain slow updating in the first part. But since the animal’s revealed posterior belief after the extinction is also low, there is no simple way to explain why updating is so rapid after the fear is reinstalled. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 569 However, normal subjects learned to avoid those risky ‘‘bad decks’’ but the prefrontal-damage patients rapidly returned to the bad decks shortly after suffering a loss. In fact, even among normal subjects, those who were lowest in emotional reactivity acted more like the prefrontal patients; see Peters and Slovic (2000). Homeostasis in the body implies that people will adapt to changes and, consequently, are more sensitive to changes than to absolute levels. Kahneman and Tversky (1979) suggest the same principle applies to gains and losses of money from a point of reference and, furthermore, that the pain of loss is stronger than the pleasure of equal-sized gains. Imaging studies show that gains and losses are fundamentally different because losses produce more overall activation and slower response times, and there are differences in which areas are active during gain and loss; see Camerer, Johnson, Rymon and Sen (1993) and Smith and Dickhaut (2002). Dickhaut, McCabe, Nagode, Rustichini and Pardo (2003) found more activity in the orbitofrontal cortex when thinking about gains compared to losses, and more activity in inferior parietal and cerebellar areas when thinking about losses. O’Doherty, Kringelbach, Rolls, Jornak and Andrews (2001) found that losses differentially activated lateral OFC and gains activated medial OFC. Knutson, Westdorp, Kaiser and Hommer (2000) found strong activation in mesial PFC on both gain and loss trials, and additional activation in anterior cingulate and thalamus during loss trials. Single-neuron measurement by Schultz and colleagues, as reported in Schultz and Dickinson (2000), and Glimcher (2002) in monkeys has isolated specific neurons which correspond remarkably closely to familiar economic ideas of utility and belief. Schulz isolates dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental ‘‘midbrain’’ and Glimcher studies the lateral inferior parietal (LIP) area. The midbrain neurons fire at rates which are monotonic in reward amount and probability (i. e. , they ‘‘encode’’ reward and probability). The LIP neurons seem to encode expected value in games with mixed-strategy equilibria that monkeys play against computerized opponents. An interesting fact for neuroeconomics is that all the violations of standard utility theories exhibited in human choice experiments over money have been replicated with animals. For example, in ‘‘Allais paradox’’ choices people appear to overweight low probabilities, give a quantum jump in weight to certain outcomes, and do not distinguish sharply enough between intermediate probabilities; see e. g. Prelec (1998). Rats show this pattern too, and also show other expected utility violations; see e. g. Battalio, Kagel and Green (1995). People also exhibit ‘‘context-dependence’’: whether A is chosen more often than B can depend on the presence of an irrelevant third choice C (which is dominated and never chosen). Context-dependence means people compare choices within a set rather than assigning separate numerical utilities. Honeybees exhibit the same pattern; see Shafir, Waite and Smith (2002). The striking # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 570 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec arallelism of choices across species suggests that the human neural circuitry for these decisions is ‘‘old’’, and perhaps specially adapted to the challenges all species face—foraging, reproduction and survival—but not necessarily consistent with rationality axioms. Gambling: Economics has never provided a satisfactory theory of why people both insure and gamble. Including emotions and other neuroscientific constructs might help. Like drug addiction, the study of pathological gambling is a useful test case where simple theories of rationality take us only so far. About 1% of the people who gamble are ‘‘pathological’’—they report losing control, ‘‘chasing losses’’, and harming their personal and work relationships; cf. National Research Council (1999). Pathological gamblers are overwhelmingly male. They drink, smoke and use drugs much more frequently than average. Many have a favorite game or sport they gamble on. Gambling incidence is correlated among twins, and genetic evidence shows that pathologicals are more likely to have a certain gene allele (D2Al), which means that larger thrills are needed to get modest jolts of pleasure; see Comings (1998). One study shows that treatment with naltrexone, a drug that blocks the operation of opiate receptors in the brain, reduces the urge to gamble; see e. g. Moreyra, Aibanez, Saiz-Ruiz, Nissenson and Blanco (2000). 8 Game Theory and Social Preferences In strategic interactions (games), knowing how another person thinks is critical to predicting that person’s behavior. Many neuroscientists believe there is a specialized ‘‘mind-reading’’ (or ‘‘theory of mind’’) area which controls reasoning about what others believe and might do. Social preferences: McCabe, Houser, Ryan, Smith and Trouard (2001) used fMRI to measure brain activity when subjects played games involving trust, cooperation and punishment. They found that players who cooperated more often with others showed increased activation in Broadmann area 10 (thought to be one part of the mind-reading circuitry) and in the thalamus (part of the emotional ‘‘limbic’’ system). Their finding is nicely corroborated by Hill and Sally (2002), who compared normal and autistic subjects playing ultimatum games, in which a proposer offers a take-it-or-leave-it division of a sum of money to a responder. Autists often have trouble figuring out what other people think and believe, and are thought to have deficits in area 10. About a quarter of their autistic adults offered nothing in the ultimatum game, which is consistent with an inability to imagine why others would regard an offer of zero as unfair and reject it. The same drug has been used to successfully treat ‘‘compulsive shopping’’; see McElroy, Satlin, Pope, Keck and Hudson (1991). # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 8 Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 571 One of the most telling neuroscientific findings comes from Sanfey, Rilling, Aaronson, Nystrom, Leigh and Cohen’s (2003) fMRI study of ultimatum bargaining. By imaging the brains of subjects responding to offers, they found that very unfair offers ($1 or $2 out of $10) differentially activated prefrontal cortex (PFC), anterior cingulate (ACC) and insula cortex. The insula cortex is known to be activated during the experience of negative emotions like pain and disgust. ACC is an ‘‘executive function’’ area which often receives inputs from many areas and resolves conflicts among them. After an unfair offer, the brain (ACC) struggles to resolve the conflict between wanting money (PFC) and disliking the ‘‘disgust’’ of being treated unfairly (insula). Whether players reject unfair offers or not can be predicted rather reliably (a correlation o f 0. 45) by the level of their insula activity. It is natural to speculate that the insula is a neural locus of the distaste for inequality or unfair treatment posited by recent models of social utility, which have been successfully used to explain robust ultimatum rejections, public goods contributions, and trust and gift-exchange results in experiments; see Fehr and Gachter (2000) and Camerer (2003, Ch. 2). 10 ? In a similar vein, de Quervain, Fischbacher, Treyer, Schellhammer, Schynyder, Buck and Fehr (2004) used PET imaging to explore the nature of costly third-party punishment by players A, after B played a trust game with player C and C decided how much to repay. When C repaid too little, the players A often punished C at a cost to themselves. They found that when players A inflicted an economic punishment, a reward region in the striatum (the nucleus accumbens) was activated—‘‘revenge tastes sweet’’. When punishment was costly, regions in prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex were differentially active, which indicates that players are responding to the cost of punishment. Zak, Matzner and Kurzban 2003) explored the role of hormones in trust games. In a canonical trust game, one player can invest up to $10 which is tripled. A second ‘‘trustee’’ player can keep or repay as much of the tripled investment as they want. Zak et al. measured eight hormones at different points in the trust game. They find an increase in oxytocin—a hormone 9 The ACC also contains ‘‘spindle cells’’—large neurons shaped like spindles, which are almost unique to human brains; see Allman, Hakeem, Erwin, Nimchinsky and Hof (2001). These cells are probably important for the activities which distinguish humans from our primate cousins, such as language, cognitive control and complex decision-making. 0 The fact that the insula is activated when unfair/offers are rejected shows how neuroeconomics can deliver fresh predictions: it predicts that low offers are less likely to be rejected by patients with insula damage, and more likely to be rejected if the insula is stimulated indirectly (e. g. , by exposure to disgusting odors). We don’t know if these predictions are true, but no current model would have made them. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 572 C. F. Camer er, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec which rises during social bonding (such as breast-feeding)—in the trustee if the first player ‘‘trusts’’ her by investing a lot. Interesting evidence of social preferences comes from studies with monkeys. Brosnan and de Waal (2003) find that monkeys will reject small rewards (cucumbers) when they see other animals getting better rewards (grapes, which they like more). Hauser, Chen, Chen and Chuang (2003) also find that tamarins act altruistically toward other tamarins who have benefited them in the past. These studies imply that we may share many properties of social preference with monkey cousins. Iterated thinking: Another area of game theory where neuroscience should prove useful is iterated strategic thinking. A central concept in game theory is that players think about what others will do, and about what thers think they will do, and this reasoning (or some other process, like learning, evolution or imitation) results in a mutually consistent equilibrium in which each player guesses correctly what others will do (and chooses their own best response given those beliefs). From a neural view, iterated thinki ng consumes scarce working memory and also requires one player to put herself in another player’s ‘‘mind’’. There may be no generic human capacity to do this beyond a couple of steps. Studies of experimental choices, and payoff information subjects look up on a computer screen, suggest 1–2 steps of reasoning are typical in most populations; cf. e. g. Costa-Gomes, Crawford and Broseta (2001), Johnson, Camerer, Sen and Tymon (2002), and see Camerer, Ho and Chong (2004). 11 Bhatt and Camerer (2004) find differential activation in the insula in players who are poor strategic thinkers, which they interpret as reflecting self-focus that harms strategizing. V. Conclusions Economics parted company from psychology in the early twentieth century after economists became skeptical that basic psychological forces could be measured without inferring them from behavior (and then, circularly, using those inferred forces to predict behavior). Neuroscience makes this measurement possible for the first time. It gives a new way to open the ‘‘black box’’ which is the building block of economic systems—the human mind. More ambitiously, students are often bewildered that the models of human nature offered in different social sciences are so different, and often contradictory. Economists emphasize rationality; psychologists 11 It is important to note, however, that principles like backward induction and computation of equilibrium can be easily taught in these experiments. That means these principles are not computationally difficult, per se, they are simply unnatural. In terms of neural economizing, this means these principles should be treated like efficient tools which the brain is not readilyequipped with, but which have low ‘‘marginal costs’’ once they are acquired. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 73 emphasize cognitive limits and sensitivity of choices to contexts; anthropologists emphasize acculturation; and sociologists emphasize norms and social constraint. An identical question on a final exam in each of the fields about trust, for example, would have different ‘‘correct’’ answers in each of the fields. It is possible that a biological basis for behavior in neuroscience, perhaps combined with all-purpose tools like learning models or game theory, could provide some unification across the social sciences; cf. Gintis (2003). Most economists we talk to are curious about neuroscience but skeptical of whether we need it to do economics. The tradition of ignoring the inside of the ‘‘black box’’ is so deeply ingrained that learning about the brain seems like a luxury we can live without. But it is inevitable that neuroscience will have some impact on economics, eventually. If nothing else, brain fMRI imaging will alter what psychologists believe, leading to a ripple effect which will eventually inform economic theories that are increasingly responsive to psychological evidence. Furthermore, since some neuroscientists are already thinking about economics, a field called neuroeconomics will arise whether we like it or not. So it makes sense to initiate a dialogue with the neuroscientists right away. Economics could continue to chug along, paying no attention to cognitive neuroscience. But, to ignore a major new stream of relevant data is always a dangerous strategy scientifically. It is not as if economic theory has given us the final word on, e. g. , advertising effectiveness, dysfunctional consumption (alcoholism, teenage pregnancy, crime), and business cycle and stock market fluctuations. It is hard to believe that a growing familiarity with brain functioning will not lead to better theories for these and other economic domains, perhaps surprisingly soon. In what way might neuroscience contribute to economics? First, in the applied domain, neuroscience measurements have a comparative advantage when other sources of data are unreliable or biased, as is often the case with surveys and self-reports. Since neuroscientists are ‘‘asking the brain, not the person’’, it is possible that direct measurements will generate more reliable indices of some variables which are important to economics (e. g. , consumer confidence, and perhaps even welfare). Second, basic neuroeconomics research will ideally be able to link hypotheses about specific brain mechanisms (location, and activation) with unobservable intermediate variables (utilities, beliefs, planning ahead), and with observable behavior (such as choices). One class of fruitful tasks is those where some theories assume choice A and choice B are made by a common mechanism, but a closer neural look might suggest otherwise. For example, a standard assumption in utility theory is that marginal rates of substitution exist across very different bundles of goods (and, as a corollary, that all goods can be priced in money terms). But some tradeoffs are simply # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. 574 C. F. Camerer, G. Loewenstein and D. Prelec too difficult or morally repulsive (e. g. , selling a body part). Elicited preferences often vary substantially with descriptions and procedures; e. g. Ariely, Loewenstein and Prelec (2003). Neuroscience might tell us precisely what a ‘‘difficult’’ choice or a ‘‘sacred preference’’ is, and why descriptions and procedures matter. 12 A third payoff from neuroscience is to suggest that economic choices which are considered different in theory are using similar brain circuitry. For example, studies cited above found that insula cortex is active when players in ultimatum games receive low offers, when people choose ambiguous gambles or money, when people see faces of others who have cooperated with them, and in players who are poor strategic thinkers. This suggests a possible link between these types of games and choices which would never have been suggested by current theory. A fourth potential payoff from neuroscience is to add precision to functions and parameters in standard economic models. For instance, which substances are cross-addictive is an empirical question which can guide theorizing about dynamic substitution and complementarity. A ‘‘priming dose’’ of cocaine enhances craving for heroin, for example; cf. Gardner and Lowinson (1991). Work on brain structure could add details to theories of human capital and labor market discrimination. 13 The point is that knowing which neural mechanisms are involved tell us something about the nature of the behavior. For example, if the oxytocin hormone is released when you are trusted, and being trusted sparks reciprocation, then raising oxytocin exogeneously could increase trustworthy behavior (if the brain doesn’t adjust for the exogeneity and ‘‘undo’’ its effect). In another example, Lerner, Small and Loewenstein (in press) show that changing moods exogeneously changes buying and selling prices for goods. The basic point is that understanding the effects of biological and emotional processes like hormone 2 Grether, Plott, Rowe, Sereno and Allman (2004) study a related problem—what happens in second-price Vickrey auctions when people learn to bid their valuations (a dominant strategy). They find that the anterior cingulate is more activ e before people learn to bid their values, which is a neural way of saying that bidding valuations is not transparent. 13 It has been known for some time that brains rapidly and unconsciously (‘‘implicitly’’) associate same-race names with good words (‘‘Chip-sunshine’’ for a white person) and opposite-race names with bad words (‘‘Malik-evil’’); see e. g. McConnell and Leibold (2001). This fact provides a neural source discrimination which is neither a taste nor a judgment of skill based on race (as economic models usually assume). Opposite-race faces also activate the amygdala, an area which processes fear; cf. Phelps, O’Connor, Cunningham, Funayama, Gatenby, Gore and Banaji (2000). Importantly, implicit racial associations can be disabled by first showing people pictures of faces of familiar other-race members (e. g. , showing Caucasians a picture of actor Denzel Washington). This shows that the implicit racial association is not a ‘‘taste’’ in the conventional economic sense (e. g. it may not respond to prices). It is a cognitive impulse which interacts with other aspects of cognition. # The editors of the Scandinavian Journal of Economics 2004. Neuroeconomics: why economics needs brains 575 elease and moods will lead to new types of predictions about how variations in these processes affect economic behavior. In the empirical contracts literature there is, surprisingly, no adverse selection and moral hazard in the market for automobile insurance; cf. Chiappori, Abbring, Heck man and Pinquet (2001). But there is plenty of moral hazard in healthcare use and worker behavior. A neural explanation is that driving performance is both optimistic (everyone thinks they are an above-average driver, so poor drivers do not purchase fuller coverage) and automatic (and is therefore unaffected by whether drivers are insured) but healthcare purchases and labor effort are deliberative. This suggests that ‘‘degree of automaticity’’ is a variable that can be usefully included in contracting models. Will it ever be possible to create formal models of how these brain features interact? The answer is definitely ‘‘Yes’’, because models already exist; cf. e. g. Benhabib and Bisin (2004), Loewenstein and O’Donoghue (2004) and Bernheim and Rangel (in press). A key step is to think of behavior as resulting from the interaction of a small number of neural systems—such as automatic and controlled processes, or ‘‘hot’’ affect and ‘‘cold’’ cognition, or a module that chooses and a modu How to cite Essay Topics for Mba Students, Essays